Hazards

WHAT IS SILICA DUST?

Silica is the main component in sand and in rocks like sandstone and granite. Many workplaces are not aware that common building products such as clay bricks, concrete, tiles and fibro cement products contain silica. Silica dust is usually created when such building products, sandstone or rocks are cut, drilled or worked on in a way that creates fine particles of silica in the air. It is breathing in this crystalline form (quartz) of silica that causes silicosis.

WHO IS AFFECTED?

Silicosis is not a naturally occurring disease. Its development is directly associated with workplace exposure to silica dust. Workers who are mostly at risk include those engaged in tunneling and excavation work, road building, demolition work as well as those in slate, granite cutting industries and some manufacturing processes.

HEALTH AFFECTS OF SILICA DUST

Initial exposure to silica dust will cause irritation of the eyes, nose and throat like most other dusts. However, if excessive amounts of silica dust are breathed into the lungs over a period of time, it can cause damage to the lung tissue. Other than some breathlessness during exercise, the disease can remain free of symptoms for 10-20 years after exposure.

The most common form of silicosis develops after long exposure to relatively low concentrations. Once the disease has begun, it will progress slowly but relentlessly even if the worker is removed from further exposure. There is no medical treatment for silicosis. People with silicosis are also at greater risk of developing lung cancer. In 1996 the International Agency for Research on Cancer classified crystalline silica dust as a human carcinogen (Group 1).

HOW TO CONTROL SILICA DUST AT WORK

The only effective protection against silicosis is to prevent silica dust in the air. Under their obligations in the Health and Safety in Employment Act, employers must take measures to ensure that workers are not exposed to silica dust. There a number of simple control measures that can be taken.

• Use a water hose to wet dust down at the point of dust generation. Water can be used through non-electric cutting or grinding tools to reduce the dust in the air.
• If it has to be a dry process, a dust control system with a suitable capture velocity can be used to extract silica dust.
• Encourage good work practices to minimise exposures to nearby workers or the public, in some cases.

Dust levels in the air should be monitored by a competent person. The exposure limit for silica dust (respirable quartz) is 0.1 mg/m3. However, exposure levels in settings like construction sites are highly variable and air sampling alone is not enough to indicate the health risks from airborne silica dust.

In some building work, silica dust problems can be eliminated by using pre-built materials for plumbing and wiring.

Respirators should not be the primary method of protecting against silica dust. A suitable type of respirator may be used until adequate dust controls are put in place. Workers must be trained in their proper use and maintenance.

ARE MEDICAL TESTS NECESSARY?

The disease is difficult to detect at the early stages because of the absence of symptoms. However, chest x-rays can help identify some of the cases and hopefully reduce the severity of disease.

As a preventive measure, medical monitoring should be available to those workers in occupations where they may be exposed to crystalline silica. These should be done before job placement and at least every 3 years thereafter. High-risk jobs should be given annual medical examinations.

The information in Hazards is intended to assist health and safety representatives in performing their role. It is not intended as a substitute for legal or medical advice. This Fact Sheet is courtesy of the Workers Health Centre. To visit their website click here

WHAT IS SILICOSIS?

Silicosis is caused by the inhalation of airborne crystalline silica dust in sufficiently high concentrations over a period of time. The silica dust enters the lungs and is deposited in the small air sacs known as the alveoli, where the exchange of gases occur. This causes the formation of fibrous tissue around the dust particle: a process known as fibrosis. The fibrous tissue does not allow for the easy exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide, causing an obstruction to breathing.

The most common form is the chronic form, which develops after long exposure to relatively low concentrations of dust. With the possible exception of some breathlessness during exercise the disease may remain free of symptoms for ten to twenty years after exposure. The disease progresses slowly but relentlessly.

A less common form is acute silicosis, which may develop three to five years after a heavy exposure to dust, particularly in enclosed spaces.

In all cases, there is no medical treatment. Furthermore, once the disease has begun, the progression continues even if the worker is removed from further exposure.

SILICA DUST & DISEASE

Silica is the most common element found in the earth's crust, being the major component of beach sand and granite for example. When combined with other substances, silica is relatively harmless and certainly does not cause silicosis. It is the airborne particles of the crystalline form of free silica found in quartz, tridymite and cristobalite that causes the damage. Quartz is the most important form of crystalline silica in the Australian context.

The size of the silica particles is important in causing the disease. Larger particles are usually prevented from reaching the lung's small air sacs and it is therefore the smaller particles (less than five thousandths of a millimetre) that are the most dangerous.

The development of silicosis depends on a number of factors including:

-amount and kind of dust inhaled -percentage of free silica in the dust -the form of silica -the size of the silica particles -the duration of exposure -the individual's natural body resistance -presence or absence of complicating factors (such as infection).

DETECTION OF DISEASE

The disease is difficult to detect in the early stages because of the absence of symptoms. Frequent dry coughing, shortness of breath, wheezing and increasing tiredness are possible early indicators.

There are three main methods of diagnosis:

1. Chest x-rays are the most reliable and the earliest means of detection. An x-ray can show the fibrous tissue mentioned earlier.

2. Work history is particularly useful in differentiating silicosis from other dust related diseases with similiar symptoms and formation such as asbestosis.

3. Lung function tests performed using a spirometer, which assesses the performance of the lungs.

COMPLICATIONS

Tuberculosis: People with silicosis are known to be much more susceptible to tuberculosis. Though the incidence of this is decreasing, it is still the most common complication of silicosis.

Heart Effects: In severe cases the fibrous tissue can so hinder the flow of blood in the vessels of the lungs that the heart expands; endeavouring to pump more blood. This is known as cor pulmonale. Death can result from these complications.

Cancer: A link between silicosis and cancer has been speculated on for some time. In an Australian study published in December 1990, no conclusive proof of this link could be shown. The possibility was not definitely excluded, however, in the authors' words "(it) would seem unlikely".

Though silicosis is not known to cause any other diseases it may be aggravated by other conditions. Emphysema and asbestosis can cause an additive crippling effect on the lungs when coupled with silicosis, as can cigarette smoking. Needless to say, people with these known lung conditions should not be exposed to silica dust.

WORKERS AFFECTED

Obviously, the workers at risk are the large variety of occupations in contact with silica dust. These include: -

• Underground mining, tunnelling and excavation work

• Extraction and cutting of quartzite, gneiss, granite and slate

• Foundaries

• Glass manufacturing plants

• Brick making

• Manufacture of pottery, porcelain, refractory materials and siliceous abrasives

• Road building

• Demolition work where potential sites of silica exist eg. breaking up concrete

• Explosive blasting work

Although silicosis differs from the pneumoconiosis afflicting coal miners, some coal dust, particularly from anthracite coal, can contain free silica and therefore cause silicosis.

It is important to note that silicosis is not a naturally occurring disease; it's occurrence is directly associated with work place exposure to silica dust. Its earlier names demonstrate its connection to various occupations such as miners' asthma, grinders' consumption, miners' phthisis, potters' rot and stonemasons' disease.

PREVENTION

The only protection against silicosis is prevention of dust exposure. The basic methods of prevention are:

• Substitution: Where possible, less toxic substances should be substituted for silica sand.

  Olivine and zircon sand should be used in moulds and cores in foundaries. Metallic shot, slag products or grit should be used for abrasive blasting (It is now illegal to use sand for abrasive blasting). Alumina should be substituted for flint in china placing in pottery.

• Engineering Controls: Tools causing dust eg. grinders, saws etc should be fitted with dust extraction devices. Where possible, dusty processes should be fully enclosed and have an exhaust hood attached. Local ventilation system with hoses as close as possible to the head of cutting tools.

  Using tools fitted with a water attachment to suppress dust e.g. on power saws, jackpicks and scabbling picks. Spraying with water in processes such as grinding or drilling can reduce the amount of dust by as much as 75%. An American study of foundries showed that overexposure to silica dust was the result of poorly designed and/or poorly maintained ventilation systems.

• Good Housekeeping: Regular vacuuming and wet sweeping of floors, machinery etc. to remove settled dust, is particularly important to stop dust being kicked back into the air. Work clothing should be vacuumed before removal. Under no circumstances should dry sweeping take place in areas where silica dust could be present.

  Posters and signs warning of the presence of free silica should be prominently displayed.

Respiratory Protective Equipment: This should be looked at as a last resort when all other preventative solutions possible, have been put in place. These vary from a simple disposable mask to a full respirator supplying clean air for particularly high concentrations of dust. In all cases, the equipment should fit properly and be regularly cleaned and checked.

Dust masks are unsuitable for use with a beard, and in these cases, an air supplied respirator with a hood or a helmet and visor should be used.

All these preventive measures should not be looked at in isolation but in combination with each other. It is very important that workers potentially exposed to silica dust have a chest x-ray every two years, to allow for early diagnosis.

The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygenist (ACGIH) has set an exposure limit for respirable quartz of 0.1 mg/m3.

The information in Hazards is intended to assist health and safety representatives in performing their role. It is not intended as a substitute for legal or medical advice. This Fact Sheet is courtesy of the Workers Health Centre. To visit their website click here

The majority of skin cancers are caused as a direct result of frequent and prolonged exposure to the sun, about 90% of skin cancers are found on exposed areas such as the hands and face.

Outdoor workers such as those listed below have a high risk of developing skin cancer:

• Municipal employees
• Road workers
• Building and construction workers
• Postal workers
• Gardeners
• Dockyard and harbour workers
• Outdoor sports and entertainment workers
• Jockeys

There are three main types of skin cancer:

1. Basal Cell Carcinoma (BCC)

Skin cancer is usually treated by being surgically removed. The earlier the detection and treatment, the less likely that unsightly scarring and disfigurement will result. In particular, the importance of early diagnosis of melanoma cannot be overemphasised.

Prevention is better than cure

Prevention and protection

There are many ways to protect yourself from the sun when you need to work outside. It is very important to take into account the following factors:

1. Limit Exposure

The intensity of the sun's rays is at its greatest between 10 am and 2 pm (from 11 am to 3 pm during daylight saving). Work practices should be modified to avoid any unnecessary exposure to ultra-violet radiation during these times. Nonetheless, remember that skin protection is important all year round - not just in summertime.

Employers should provide suitable protective clothing for outside workers. Loose, long sleeved shirts or blouses with a collar and long trousers or slacks to protect arms and legs. A hat with an 8cm wide brim or a cap with flaps.

Employers should also provide a suitable sunscreen of at least SPF 15+ to protect those areas of skin still exposed to the sun. 15+ means that this type of sunscreen will give at least 15 times the protection that the skin would give. It should be applied to dry clean skin before exposure to the sun and thickly reapplied when you have been in the sun for more than 2 hours. You should still cover-up with protective clothing.

Workers who are regularly exposed to the sun should be warned about the potential hazards and advised on how to avoid exposure. Outdoor workers need to be clearly aware of the fact that every time they go out into the sun, they are a target for skin cancer. The effect of exposure is cumulative and is not reversible - the damage adds up until some years later when cancers start to appear.

It is very important to check for:

• Any new freckle, mole, sunspot or unhealed sore on your skin.
• A spot that looks different from the other spots around it.
• A spot that has changed in colour, size or shape over the last few weeks or months.

Remember: No matter what type of skin you have you are at risk of developing skin cancers!

The information in Hazards is intended to assist health and safety representatives in performing their role. It is not intended as a substitute for legal or medical advice. This Fact Sheet is courtesy of the Workers Health Centre. To visit their website click here

Exposure to solvents can have both short- and long-term health effects on workers.

What is a solvent?

A solvent is a substance used to dilute or dissolve another substance to create a solution.

Water is the most common solvent as many substances are easily soluble in water. But some substances cannot be easily dissolved and require strong chemicals as solvents.

Most solvents used in industry are "organic", petroleum-based chemicals which have powerful properties to dissolve solids. They are often mixtures of several substances and can be extremely hazardous.

Some commonly used solvents are:

Few industries are free of solvents but workers in the following industries may be particularly at risk:

• Cleaning
• Dry cleaning
• Chemical manufacturing
• Footwear
• Plastics
• Printing
• Spray painting

How do solvents enter the body?

There are three ways that solvents can enter the body:

1. Inhalation

Most solvents are "volatile", that is, they evaporate into the air very quickly. The fumes, dusts, gases and vapours that result can then be breathed in and easily passed through the lungs into the blood stream.

Solvent droplets can form in the hairs inside the nose, be sniffed in or swallowed. Mouth contact with contaminated hands, food and cigarettes can also result in the ingestion of solvents.

Solvents can be absorbed through the skin by direct contact and enter the bloodstream in this way.

Health effects of solvents

Different solvents have different health effects, which will depend on how exposure happens, how much and for how long.

Short-term effects can be caused by single exposures, often to a large amount of solvent.

Short-term exposure can cause:

• Dermatitis or skin problems (drying, cracking, reddening or blistering of the affected area)
• Headaches
• Drowsiness
• Poor coordination
• Nausea (feeling sick)

These effects usually take place very quickly. In cases of exposure to very high concentrations of solvent vapor, unconsciousness and even death can occur.

Repeated (long term) exposure to solvents may effect:

• The brain and the nervous system (see below)
• The skin - causing dermatitis
• The liver - causing liver damage
• The blood-forming system
• The kidneys
• The fertility of both men and women
• The foetus in a pregnant woman

Some solvents, for example, benzene, can cause cancer.

Some solvents will have synergistic effects with other hazards and drugs. This means that the solvent will have greater health effects when it is in combination with other hazards. For example, after using an organic solvent, the effects from exposure will be greater if you smoke cigarettes or drink alcohol soon afterwards.

Effects of solvents on the nervous system

There has been increasing attention on the damage to the nervous system from solvent exposures. This is called neurotoxicity. It may be short-term (usually with high exposure and rapidly reversible once exposure has ceased) or long-term. Chronic (or long-term) effects are caused by degeneration of parts of the nervous system because of repeated low level exposures.

Symptoms of neurotoxicity are:

Tests for neurotoxicity

There are useful tests to identify toxic effects on the peripheral nerves. Nerve conduction studies (NCS) and electromyographic studies (EMG) are used in cases where there is tingling or numbness of the hands or feet, or associated muscle weakness.

A set of Neuro psychometric tests has been developed to find behavioural effects. They include tests for:

• Motor speed
• Hand steadiness
• Perceptual speed
• Reaction speed, eye-hand coordination and manual dexterity
• Verbal and visual memory and learning

Cortical evoked potentials (electrical activity in the brain following sensory stimulation)

Controlling exposure to solvents

Your employer should take all possible measures to control the exposure of workers to solvents.

Solvent exposure should be controlled, like other hazards, according to the hierarchy of control measures. First, it should be considered whether the job can be done without using the hazardous solvent.

Eliminate or substitute

Organic solvents vary in the degree of risk they pose to health. Where possible the use of harmful solvents should be avoided and/or replaced with a less harmful product. For example, water-based solvents may be used instead of organic solvents. Sometimes the job may be done in a different way so that exposure to solvents is either eliminated or reduced.

Engineering Controls

If elimination or substitution is not suitable engineering measures may need to be applied. Engineering controls may include:

• Using mechanical handling methods or automating the tasks.
• Local exhaust ventilation at the point where the solvent is used.
• Enclosing operations so that solvent exposure is isolated.
• Mechanical or general ventilation to dilute the workplace air (however this is not as effective as local exhaust ventilation to remove the contaminants).

Administrative Controls

When other approaches are not fully effective, certain administrative measures can minimise exposures. For example, prevent entry to areas where solvent vapour concentrations may build up by sign posting.

Personal protective equipment (PPE)

If none of these control measures are suitable or are not effective in your workplace, appropriate personal protection should be provided for exposed workers:

• Protective clothing to cover all exposed parts of the body and personal clothing
• Boots, gloves, eye protection and suitable respirators to prevent splashes, skin contact and inhalation of vapours.

All personal protective equipment must be of a type suitable for the particular chemicals in the solvent.

PPE should be the final option in the hierarchy of control measures. It should be an interim measure until other controls are put in place.

Other control measures to prevent solvent exposures at work

• Provide information and increase awareness of people who work with solvents.
• Store solvents in a cool place, away from any potential ignition sources.
• Ensure the storage area is well ventilated and firmly secured.
• Ensure that solvent containers have warning labels indicating the hazards of the substance and what should be done in case of an emergency.
• Contain spills or leak residues with sand or other appropriate absorbents. Do not allow spillages to enter drains or other waterways.

What you can do to work safely with solvents

Read information provided by your employer, union or from other sources. Read the label on the chemical container and follow the advice given in it.

Understand any health effects from the chemical and make sure that you know what to do in case you come into contact with the solvent.

Reduce the amount you breathe in by:

• Avoiding the use of products with solvents in them.
• Making sure there is good ventilation in the work area where solvents are used.
• Using the minimum amount needed for the job and keeping lids closed.
• Wearing suitable respiratory protection.

Reduce the amount you get on your skin by:

• Avoiding any skin contact with solvent-containing products.
• Wearing suitable protective clothing (gloves, aprons, etc).
• Not using industrial solvents to remove grease and other dirt from your skin.

Take specific precautions if using solvents in confined spaces.

Practice good hygiene by washing hands well before eating, drinking, smoking or going to the toilet.

Ask your employer to assess any risks to your health from using solvents - this is a legal requirement and may include air monitoring, blood or urine tests and proper training in working safely with chemicals.

Information on working safely with solvents is also available from the ACC website.

The information in Hazards is intended to assist health and safety representatives in performing their role. It is not intended as a substitute for legal or medical advice. This Fact Sheet is courtesy of the Workers Health Centre. To visit their website click here

There are many publications available about stress, but the term has not been used consistently and definitions vary. Quite often papers that are meant to provide explanations about stress fail to provide the definition of what they aim to explain. Confusion creates myths about stress and interferes with the designing of effective programmes to combat stress.

DEFINITIONS

Encyclopaedia Britannica says that: "stress, in psychology and biology, (is) any strain or interference that disturbs the functioning of an organism". This suggests that stress is an excessive force.Other definitions are broader and more general; they follow the definition coined by Hans Seyle, one of the major researchers of stress. He stated that: "stress is the non specific physiological response of the body to any demand made upon it". Here stress is seen as a response to any demand not only to the excessive demand.

Following the logic of such a broad definition it is correct to say that:

1. The human body produces some response (however negligible it may be) to every demand - therefore stress is unavoidable.

2. Stress is essential because without the responses to demands on body and mind we would not develop into individuals; such responses define and build us.

3. Some of the demands placed on us are regarded as pleasurable and the response produced is considered a positive experience. It may be a bet at the races or the excitement of a festive time.

The popular meaning of stress does not follow such a broad definition. "To be stressed" is to feel uncomfortable and "to be under a lot of stress" is never a positive experience. A popular meaning of stress includes only undesirable, difficult situations that make people feel bad, and make them try to avoid such "stress".

Upsetting events could be responsible for causing or aggravating serious diseases. In fact, exciting events, however happy they may be, also take toll on a person's well-being if there are too many of them in a short period of time. But it is certainly true that we experience unhappy events much more often.

The best "portable" definition of stress seems to be the one that says that:

Stress is a situation where and when there is a lack of balance between a person and his or her environment. Such a "misfit" occurs when demands placed on a person are too great to cope with or when there is too little stimulation to satisfy a person's expectations.

A useful way of looking at this idea is to see stress as a process with at least three major components involved. They are: stressors, coping strategies and consequences and their relationship can be seen in this diagram.

STRESSORS

All events, things, people around us, all those stimuli that are acting on a human body can be called candidate stressors. Depending on circumstances a candidate stressor may become a stressor. Music from a radio is a candidate stressor, it becomes a stressor when the volume is turned up or when, even at the volume acceptable to most people it is interfering with somebody's ability to concentrate on a task.

COPING STRATEGIES

Coping strategies apply to adjustments and activities that people do to change uncomfortable, unpleasant conditions . Coping strategies can be physiologically based, problem based and emotion based.

Physiological coping strategies

Although the types of stressors have changed, the human body still reacts in the same way to them. In a workplace, the stressors may be ongoing and therefore the body is in a continual state of arousal. In other words, what was once a useful adaptation designed for protection, becomes a negative response, leading to a range of physical and psychological health problems.

Table One lists the body's reactions in an emergency response, the benefits of this response in an emergency and illustrates some of the mechanisms leading to the development of diseases. The table is by no means complete and it does not present all interactions, interrelations, mechanisms and processes. It is a guide to health effects in the process of stress and is meant to explain and complement comments on this topic that are frequently made in the popular media.

Remember!

Another category of coping strategies is more concerned with mental functions. These strategies belong to two groups: problem-oriented coping and emotion-oriented coping.

Problem-based coping

Problem-based coping includes all activities performed to control the situation; that is, to eliminate the stressors or break away from their direct influence. It is the strategy that takes charge and tackles the situation head first.

Emotion-based coping

Emotion based coping means all adaptation and mental effort that are performed in order to tolerate or accept difficult circumstances.

It is generally accepted that in most stressful situations both kinds of coping, problem-based and emotion-based are present and both are necessary for healthy functioning. Whether you cope more in one way than another may depend on a situation, culture, religious beliefs, work ethics etc. There are great individual differences within groups of people and in one person's life-time.

Another way to look at the coping strategies is to assess their effectiveness in sustaining a healthy, balanced existence. All strategies can be divided into undesirable and desirable. Problem-based strategies may eventually bring elimination of the stressor. It is known that emotion-based strategies often involve highly undesirable behaviour. Drinking may provide temporary relief from tension brought by action of a stressor, but it is not a useful coping technique, as it can quickly become a habit and a stressor in its own right.

CONSEQUENCES

Consequences are the outcome of the encounter with the stressor and a measure of the effectiveness of the coping strategies and are reflected in both physical and mental health. In the early stages the consequences may present themselves as a person's changed behaviour.

People try to cope with stressors emotionally. When doing this they often display certain behaviour that we could classify as the consequences of the emotion coping strategies. These are: smoking, drinking, risk taking behaviour (for example: when driving), avoiding work or certain situations or persons at work, taking drugs (tranquillisers, sleeping pills, hard drugs).

Occasionally there are social consequences present: loss of work, loss of partner, loss of friends. Families and friends are often called secondary recipients of stress. The stress-process spreads in all directions. The consequences become stressors for other people. Some of the common early signs of stress consequences are listed below, which may assist in recognising early signs of stress. But it has to be remembered that all these symptoms may have other causes and are not necessarily proof that a person has been severely affected by stress.

• headache
• fatigue
• backache
• anxiety
• skin rashes
• tension
• pimples
• irritability
• tremors
• aggression
• reduced appetite
• indigestion
• depression
• boredom
• weight loss
• dizziness
• poor memory
• insomnia
• irregular bowel movements
• inability to concentrate
• indecisiveness

There are many advantages of following the stress-process model:

1. It provides a clear and comprehensive overview of the whole issue.

2. It makes the point that the three components (stressors, coping strategies and consequences are interchangeable, ie a coping strategy may become a stressor), and indeed it does when it involves drinking or smoking.

3. The model shows that the stress-process has a time dimension, in which the components change, interact and change again in time.

4. The model is easy to use as a guide in planning for the elimination of stressors.

STRESS-PROCESS MODEL IN THE WORKPLACE

Candidate stressors are present at the workplace and many of them become stressors. The process of stress can be and should be treated as a workplace hazard and, as such can be reduced or eliminated from the workplace by a systematic approach that involves identification, assessment and elimination or control of the hazard.

It is sometimes argued that the process though which a candidate stressor becomes a stressor is such an individual experience, that it is not possible to treat stress in the same way as other hazards. This is not a valid argument. It is known that resistance to any adverse factors vary from person to person; not all asbestos workers succumb to asbestosis or mesothelioma, just as not everybody gets the flu in winter. The perception of events, so that they do or do not become stressors, varies from person to person, also it changes considerably in one person's experience.

However, there are workplace characteristics that have been identified, through research, as notorious stressors. Those factors always affect a significant proportion of the workforce or, while affecting few individuals, have a severe effect on those individuals.

An example is the interaction between job demand and job control. It has been found that the job environment is very "stressful" if there is little or no job control but at the same time the demands placed on workers are very high. It could be machine paced work where there is no scope for worker's control and initiative, coupled with high demand: high pace and bonus for meeting quality control requirements. In those circumstances a very high proportion of the workforce will identify the workplace as "stressful". In this and many other situations the details of worker's personalities are completely irrelevant.

Listed here are examples of the most frequently occurring stressors:

• noise
• heat
• cold
• crowded work environment
• poorly designed equipment, tools
• poorly designed work furniture
• poor lighting
• unsafe conditions / unguarded machinery
• chemical exposure
• poor housekeeping machinery
• vibration
• weight handling
• reduced control over work and work design
• uncontrolled interruptions
• rigid work hierarchies, little say in decision making
• lack of consultation
• no understanding of management decisions
• no understanding of the whole process of the job
• unsatisfactory contact with supervisors
• lack of appropriate feedback
• poor guidelines on job performance
• lack of sense of achievement
• no long term goals provided
• poor method for priority determination
• limited prospects of promotion
• limited use of skills
• lack of recognition of workers' skills
• improper training (poor, inadequate)
• inadequate staffing levels
• qualitative overload: task too complex, too much responsibility
• qualitative underload: boring repetitive work, little variation in task
• quantitative overload: too much to do
• quantitative underload: too little to do
• work pressure, excessive pace, mechanical pacing
• long hours, shift work, overtime
• harassment, victimisation, discrimination
• conflicts with managers and / or other workers
• job insecurity, financial insecurity

ACTION AT THE WORKPLACE

"Fix the job, not the worker."

The most effective method to deal successfully with hazards is to eliminate them. The points listed below should help to prepare a programme of stressor elimination in the workplace:

1. Divide a job into single tasks.

2. Write down all tasks that make unreasonable demands, using feelings as the only guide.

3. Consider the list of stressors presented in this Factsheet, to the most frequently occurring demands.

4. Work with colleagues and compare lists.

5. Prepare a final list of the most stressful events or circumstances. Most colleagues should agree on this list.A fairly objective list of stressors at your workplace will result if the majority of workers are consulted. When preparing the final list, prioritise the stressors for elimination.

6. It is not possible to suggest solutions in general terms as they have to be tailor-made for any particular workplace.

STRESS MANAGEMENT

"Stress management" usually means a short course in relaxation and information about diet, fitness, and having outside interests. This type of stress management is rightfully accused of being just another version of "victim blaming" theory. It is only a part of a comprehensive programme but is introduced as a complete solution. This type of stress management concentrates on peoples individual reactions, their personal, emotional coping strategies. Such stress management suggests that the stress-process has been started and continues because workers are not fit enough, physically and mentally, to cope with a normal working environment. Intervention is suggested and workers are made to think that they have to change in order to be able to perform at work. This type of approach may have limited positive results initially. The results are not due to objective effectiveness of the techniques but to the psychological effects that intervention programmes have and the fact that people feel something positive is being done. However, the actual occupational hazards remain, because the stressors have not been controlled.

However "managing" means using the resources to meet the objectives. If an objective is to effectively deal with stress in the workplace then stress management should mean all such activities that achieve the following:

• elimination of stressors,

• boost in workers' defence against those stressors that, for the time being, cannot be eliminated

• effective treatment of workers who have already been affected by the stress process,

• workers trained in all necessary skills.

Therefore a comprehensive stress management programme at the workplace should consist of:

• introduction to the concept of the stress-process, training in practical ways to identify, assess and control or eliminate hazardous stressors.

• training in problem solving and conflict resolution techniques, training in job skills,

• training in stress self-help techniques for those who choose to participate

• training in assertiveness,

• easy access to on-going counselling advice provided by fully trained psychologist,

• easy access to medical services

• Such a programme has to be prepared through consultation with all workers and their unions.

SUMMARY

The main concept of the stress-process can be summarised as follows: if stressors are present, a person subjected to them has to adopt certain coping strategies. The effectiveness of the coping strategies in maintaining a balance determines whether the consequences eventually become significant. The consequences are the adverse effects on physical and mental health, these in turn have their own consequences reflecting on the social well-being of the person. Very easily a person subjected to stressors may enter the "vicious circle". The consequences become stressors in their own right, the process repeats itself many times over, health effects become more and more severe, social functioning breaks down. In the workplace the stress-process has to be treated as a hazard. The only way to deal with it is through prevention or early elimination if already present.

REMEMBER: THERE IS STRESS MANAGEMENT AND THERE IS COMPREHENSIVE STRESS MANAGEMENT.

The OSH report 'Healthy Work - Managing Stress and Fatigue in the Workplace' is available from the workinfo website

The information in Hazards is intended to assist health and safety representatives in performing their role. It is not intended as a substitute for legal or medical advice. This Fact Sheet is courtesy of The Workers Health Centre. To visit their website click here

Information on health and safety for supermarket and grocery workers is available from the ACC website.

What are synthetic mineral fibres?

Synthetic Mineral Fibre is a general term used to describe a number of fibrous materials made from glass, rock, alumina and silica. Some of these products are composed of a mixture of fibres in a multitude of sizes. Generally referred to as SMF, they are also known as Man Made Mineral Fibres (MMMFs).

SMF have been widely used as alternatives to asbestos in insulation and fire-rating products and as reinforcement in cement, plaster and plastic materials. SMF products are used extensively in commercial and residential buildings for insulation from temperature and sound.

There are four main groups of SMF:

1. Continuous Glass Filaments
used in textiles, reinforced plastics and concrete, and as electrical insulation and plumbing materials.
2. Fibreglass, glass fibre or glasswool
used mainly in insulation mats.
3. Rockwool
used in formed insulation, in limpet materials, such as acoustic insulation and fire-rating materials.
4. Ceramic Fibres
used as insulation blankets and for high temperature applications and fire-rated products.

Health effects of SMFs

For some years, there were concerns that SMF may be associated with health effects similar to those found with asbestos. This was because of the similarities of appearance, as well as the industrial application, of SMFs and asbestos. Now there is a large amount of scientific data from various studies, including epidemiological studies of workers in SMF industries. Reviews of these results show a number of health effects from exposure to various SMF.

Short-term exposure can result in:

• Skin and eye irritation
- more likely in workers having direct contact with SMF products for the first time or after a period of absence. May involve reddening, burning, itching, prickling, scaling, thickening and inflammation around the fingernails.
• Upper respiratory tract irritation
- likely during exposure to very high concentrations of SMF in the air.

Long-term exposure to SMF was shown to be associated with a slightly increased risk of lung cancer among exposed workers in early SMF industries. Animal studies have shown the potential of SMF to cause mesothelioma, but no cases of this lung disease were reported from studies in the fibreglass and rockwool manufacturing industries.

Animal studies and epidemiological results have led the World Health Organisation (WHO) International Agency for Research on Cancer to classify fibres such as rockwool, ceramic and glass fibre as Class 2B carcinogens. That is, they are possibly carcinogenic to humans.

With other cancer-causing substances (carcinogens), we know that there is no safe level of exposure -that is, there is no low level that can be guaranteed not to cause an increased cancer risk. However, Current scientific opinion is that SMF caused chronic health effects will not occur under typical "modern-day" operations, provided adequate precautions are taken in the workplace.

In particular fibrous dust is less easy to limit and control on construction sites and it is very important to ensure that workers in the construction, as well as the manufacturing, industry are protected from over exposure.

Occupational exposure standards

The current national exposure standard set by Worksafe Australia is 0.5 fibres per millilitre of air for all types of SMF. This is the average concentration of fibres in the air measured and calculated over a normal eight-hour working day. Due to the limitations of available data on which to set a health-based exposure standard, another standard is applied alongside. This secondary standard recommends 2 mg/m3 of inspirable dust to minimise upper respiratory tract irritation from the larger sized fibres.

This Australian exposure standard is considered the most stringent value for SMF exposures in the world.

Legal requirements

In NSW the most important laws covering Synthetic Removal Fibres are the NSW Occupational Health and Safety Act 2000 and the NSW Occupational Health and Safety Regulation 2001.

The NSW WorkCover Code of Practice for the Safe Use of Synthetic Mineral Fibres and the National Occupational Health and Safety Commission's National Code of Practice for the Safe Use of Synthetic Mineral Fibres provide guidance on how to achieve a safe level of exposure at work. Compliance with these Codes of Practice is a minimum requirement to ensure the health and safety of employees and reduce the risk of exposure to SMF.

Workplace Control Measures

Suitable methods should be applied for each job involving SMF so that the level of respirable fibres in the workplace atmosphere is eliminated or adequately controlled. The National Code of Practice outlines safe work practices and general responsibilities when handling SMF. It applies to all applications involving SMF and activities involving their manufacture, installation, removal or other related handling.

Some of the measures described in the National Code of Practice are outlined below. The Code provides separate schedules for working safely with rockwool, ceramic fibre and glasswool. All workplaces using SMF should therefore consult the Code for more details on these provisions.

• Employers should select products containing the least amount of respirable fibres.
For example, ceramic fibres should be avoided and where possible, non-fibrous safer products should replace fibrous products.
• Plants manufacturing SMF need a design process that ensures the lowest amount of fibre particles becoming airborne.
• Hand tools are preferred for cutting SMF material.
If power tools need to be used, they should be fitted with local exhaust ventilation at the point of dust generation.
• A regular clean up
should be done to remove any build up of fibres and/or dust. Wet mopping and wiping or an industrial vacuum cleaner are recommended. Never do dry sweeping or use compressed air or high pressure water jets for cleaning.
• SMF waste must be collected in plastic bags
to prevent fibre and/or dust emissions and disposed of according to regulations.
• Adequate washing facilities for workers should be available on site.
• SMF material should be stored in intact containers or under sheet covers.

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

When exposure levels are above the exposure standard and when engineering controls and safe work practices are not adequate, personal protective equipment is required. However, PPE is not a substitute for control measures to reduce exposure levels.

If you are working with SMF, your employer should provide you with the correct PPE and explain how to use it. The employer should also ensure that PPE is stored separately from a worker's other clothing.

• Lightweight, loose-fitting clothing (long sleeves and full length trousers) and gloves
should be worn when handling SMF. Cloth can be tucked into collars to minimise skin irritations by preventing fibres entering shirt.
• An approved respirator
(complying with Australian Standards AS 1715 and AS 1716) should be selected according to the type of SMF and its exposure level in the workplace. For most SMF work, half-face P1 or P2 dust masks will be suitable.
• Safety goggles or face shields
can prevent eye irritation or injury
• PPE must be removed and face and hands washed thoroughly with soap and water before eating or smoking.
It is very important to keep rest rooms and recreation areas completely free of contamination by fibrous dust.

Air monitoring

If effective control measures are in place, SMF exposure levels may not be a concern. However, if there is reasonable concern about airborne fibre levels in any work involving SMF, the employer should take steps, as outlined in the National Code, regarding air monitoring.

The air sampling should be undertaken by an adequately trained person using the SMF membrane filter method. Records of all air monitoring must be kept by the employer, who should inform all workers using SMF about the results and about any risk control measures.

Training and supervision

Workers using SMF and supervisors should be given adequate information, instruction and training about working safely with SMF. This should include health related information on SMF, controlling fibre/dust exposures and the levels associated with their type of work and how safe work practices can be used effectively. Supervisors should receive specific training in their legal responsibilities and duties as supervisors of SMF work.

Trained, experienced supervisors must closely supervise all work involving the use of SMF products. Further information on Synthetic Metal Fibres is available from the ACC website.

This Fact Sheet is courtesy of the Workers Health Centre. To visit their website click here

The wood processing industry is a rapidly growing industry in New Zealand. Many workers in workplaces such as pulp and paper mills, sawmills, veneer and plywood plants, woodchip operations, joineries and furniture plants may be exposed to high levels of wood dust. Occupations such as carpenters and roofers, and maintenance workers in construction industry can also be exposed to wood dust regularly.

Wood is one of the major renewable resources in the world. For industrial purposes, wood is classified into two types; hardwoods (derived from deciduous trees, for example Eucalyptus) and softwoods (derived from coniferous trees, for example pine).

The major woodworking processes are debarking, sawing, sanding, milling, lathing, drilling, veneer cutting, chipping and mechanical defibrating. Sanding and sawing processes produce fine airborne dust particles. High moisture content in fresh wood makes it less airborne than dry wood, which produces more dust during processing. Softwood particles are more fibrous and usually larger and as a result also less capable of becoming airborne.

Health effects of wood dust

Skin irritation and skin sensitisation

Skin irritation can be caused by contact with the wood itself, dust, bark, sap or lichens growing on the bark. Symptoms subside once the irritant is removed.

Sensitization dermatitis is usually caused by exposure to the fine dust from certain wood species. This exposure produces symptoms similar to skin irritation. Once sensitized, the body sets up an allergic reaction, and will react severely when exposed even to a small amount of wood dust.

Allergic and non-allergic respiratory effects

The most commonly reported allergic respiratory effect due to wood dust exposure is asthma. It may occur alone or in conjunction with dermatitis. Occupational asthma and rhinitis due to exposure to Western Red Cedar has been well documented. It is one of the most common types of occupational asthma prevailing in British Colombia, Canada.

Exposure to wood dust can cause chronic obstructive lung disease. Exposure to saw fumes containing terpenes, a constituent of wood also causes chronic obstructive impairment in lung function.

Nasal effects

Chronic exposure to wood dust can cause impaired nasal mucociliary clearance. A major portion of airborne wood dust is contributed by particles larger than 10µm size, which can be trapped effectively in the nasal passage.

Nasal cancer is a significant hazard of woodworking and is particularly associated with hardwoods.

Biohazards

Exposure to microorganisms that grow on wood can also cause potential health effects. Endotoxins from bacteria and allergenic fungi growing on wood are the main biohazards found in wood processing workplaces.

Exposure to these biohazards can cause adverse health effects such as organic dust toxic syndrome (ODTS), bronchitis, asthma, extrinsic allergic alveolitis (EAA), and mucous membrane irritation. The fungi predominantly associated with EAA and ODTS are dry spored species such as Aspergillus and Penicillium.

A study of wood dust exposure conducted in the timber industry in NSW, concluded that woodworkers from the tree felling stage to final manufacturing processes are exposed to airborne wood dust of different particle sizes, concentrations and compositions. Sanding, routing, wood turning, and copy lathing were found to be the main woodworking processes that gave rise to high exposure levels. This study also revealed high prevalence of chronic bronchitis, frequent headaches, eye and throat irritation, and nasal symptoms including regular blocked nose, runny nose and excess nasal secretion, sneezing and sinus problems among woodworkers. The results also showed that exposure to wood dust and biohazards associated with wood dust have negative effects on the lung function of woodworkers. (Alwis et al., 1999)

Medium Density Fibre Boards (MDF)

MDF is widely used in the joinery and furniture industry as well as in building and housing construction. The major constituents of MDF particle boards are pulverized softwood and urea-formaldehyde resin, both of which are recognized as potential health hazards in the working environment. MDF produces very fine dust during processing and the dust particles act as a carrier of absorbed formaldehyde to the lower airways of lungs.

Wood dust and formaldehyde together have been reported to cause respiratory irritation with symptoms of dryness of throat, rhinitis and eye irritation as well as occupational skin disease. Protective measures for wood dust exposure should be followed when MDF is used.

CCA Preservatives in Timber

A preservative known as CCA is used widely to treat timber in both industrial and domestic situations. CCA is a water-borne preservative and contains copper, chromium and arsenic salts dissolved in water. Exposure to CCA is considered as a potential health risk mainly because some arsenic and chromium compounds are known to cause cancer.

The main health risk from CCA timber preservation is to those workers who use CCA to treat the timber. The approved code of practice for dealing with timber preservatives and antisapstain chemicals is available from the OSH website.

Is CCA-treated timber a health risk?

The pressure treatment process used in CCA preservation results in a high degree of fixation by the timber. This means that it is unlikely that any of the chemicals in CCA (arsenic or chromium salts) would leach out from the treated timber. The main concern is for exposure of workers who are using the product to do the initial treatment of the timber.

There are few studies of occupational exposure to CCA in timber treatment and its processing. They show few significant health effects associated with CCA exposure except for some cases of dermatitis. However, some arsenic and chromium compounds used in CCA are toxic (poisons) and a number of short-term effects including respiratory problems can also occur from inhalation of arsenic dust or chromium salts.

The known health effects are from the various chemical components in CCA and not from the treated timber. Therefore, potential health risks from CCA-treated timber would be limited to situations when high amounts of dust may be generated from the sawing or grinding of the timber. Suitable exhaust ventilation or personal protection must be provided in such instances.

It is recommended practice that freshly treated timber is stored at the treatment plant for at least two weeks (and up to 6 weeks) to ensure fixation and surface drying of the CCA.

Timber for domestic or playground use should also be surface washed prior to distribution.Do not burn CCA-treated timber when barbecuing or building fires because harmful products can be released.

Controlling wood dust

In ensuring that the potential health hazards associated with timber work and wood dust are controlled, employers should:

• Ensure that workers are made aware of the potential health effects of wood dust exposure.

• Provide good housekeeping to ensure that excessive amounts of dust do not accumulate inside equipment and in work areas, as this can cause fire or explosion hazards.

• Provide effective and adequate exhaust ventilation systems for all the machinery and hand-held tools. Dusty processes should be segregated.

• Although it is difficult to control dust completely, it is usually possible to control the levels to within safe occupational limits with a well designed, efficient and properly used exhaust ventilation system. Such a system must be regularly maintained. Where this is not possible, suitable respiratory protection equipment should be provided for all workers.

• Defective old machinery (especially in sawmills) should not be operated.

• Compressed air jets should not be used to remove laden dust from machinery and surfaces, as it makes dust airborne. Dusty surfaces and machinery should be cleaned regularly using a dustless technique such as vacuum cleaning.

• Workers should be trained regarding the use and maintenance of ventilation systems and also the use and maintenance of personal protective equipment.

The information in Hazards is intended to assist health and safety representatives in performing their role. It is not intended as a substitute for legal or medical advice. This Fact Sheet is courtesy of The Workers Health Centre. To visit their website click here